Developing New Engineers and Their Effect on Organizational Commitment

Introduction One of the biggest challenges to organizations today is to motivate their workforce. Various human resource practices are, therefore yet to be formulated in light of recent research studies placing the human resource function as integral to the success of any organization (Ferris 1999). Employee development is relatively one of the most integral aspects of human resource functions today.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Developing New Engineers and Their Effect on Organizational Commitment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The importance of this practice has been supported by recent research studies suggesting that employee development is likely to affect the success of organizations because it influences employee attitudes and behavior. Employee development is, therefore important in developing the overall capabilities of both employees and employers alike. A central focus with regards to perce ived employee development is that employee development creates an environment that is sensitive to the contributions employers make towards the employability of their employees. The perceived employee development facilitates employer’s obligations in the organization to symbolize a sense of care towards employee welfare, which in turn prompts employees to work twice as hard to ensure the organization reaches high levels of success (Arthur 1994). Considering the turbulent business environment and the rapid changes occurring across the globe with regard to organizational structures, there is an increasing need among employers to reexamine the need for continuous development among employees with regard to their skills and techniques. Nonetheless, the perception of how an increase in employee development affects the way employees behave, and the subsequent impact on employee attitudes is not well determined. More studies, therefore, need to be undertaken to establish this relatio nship; like the way the organization’s climate influences personal development skills or its influence on employee attitude and behaviors (Noe Ford, 1992, p. 345). For purposes of this study, we will evaluate existing literature relating to the effects of employee development of new engineers on the organizational commitment in an electrical organization. Organizational commitment should be analyzed in the context of the psychological link of employee development on the employees, as well as the employers. The aim of this study is, therefore to establish a relationship between employee development and organizational commitment in relation to employee and employer attitudes, commitments, policies, and procedures in order to provide a baseline where future research can be undertaken. This study will, however, be multifaceted.Advertising Looking for dissertation on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Firs tly, the relationship between employment development, the intent to leave and job satisfaction will be evaluated as essential determinants to organizational commitment. Secondly, this study will establish the intermediary role of job satisfaction and organizational commitment on the intent of the new engineers to leave the organization. However, the contributions to the study will be merged from three fronts. First it will be based on the concept of employee commitment, such as the development of organizational commitment (additionally, we will expand this attribute with external factors such as job satisfaction among the new engineers and their intent to leave; solely for the purpose of expanding our understanding on the matter) and secondly, we will base our findings from research studies done to define the relationship employee development has on the work attitudes and behaviors of the new engineers. Thirdly, this study will include findings from other countries to represent a cr oss-cultural literature input. These factors withstanding, the most significant aim of this study will be to investigate the impact of employee development on organizational commitment. Generally, these findings will, therefore, analyze employee development as an antecedent of job satisfaction, the intention of employees to leave the organization and the rate of turnover as indicators of organizational commitment Background Companies always need to improve their human capital skills to develop a competitive advantage over other existing companies (Schuler Macmillan 1984). In close relation, individuals also need to develop their skills for career progression. The development of human skills is nowadays perceived as a critical component in streamlining employment relationships. There is, therefore, an eminent gap between the objectives of employees and employers. Companies, therefore, need to come up with innovative ways to retain their employees and also develop new ways to fulfill their own interests as well as the interests of the employees. For any employer, the most common way of developing employees, especially in technical industries is through training (Nordhaug 1989). As companies sit down and ponder on ways to improve their employees, an emphasis should be made on the impact of training and development of employees as well as organizational commitment. Considering the dynamism of the competitive labor market as well as the different interests employers and employees have, it will be very interesting to investigate the effect of employee development and its relation to organizational commitment.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Developing New Engineers and Their Effect on Organizational Commitment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The significance of employee development (especially through training) is noted to be the biggest factor to attaining competitive advantages. Resea rch has however, long identified that the development of employees goes way beyond the development of skills and the knowledge required to effectively complete a given job or task (Tannenbaum 1991). With close reference to management, psychology, and labor economics, the impact of employee development on employee attitude is varied and undetermined. This stretches as far as the willingness employees will have towards retaining their services to a given organization. The importance of retaining and recruiting new employees to be competent workers is therefore very enormous and key to the success of any given company. When companies are faced with tricky and unprecedented changes, they often change their training policies and procedures in light of new developments. These changes not only have an impending impact on the attitudes of employees but also on the organizational commitment. Organizational commitment is however, majorly perceived as a predictor of organizational behavior or the intention of the managers or other relevant stakeholders to enhance development of employees. Various studies done to determine the effectiveness of human resource practices and training initiatives have also been identified to affect organizational commitment. Organizational Commitment The consequential impact employee development has on organizational commitment has been an interesting topic for most managers and researchers alike. Organizational commitment is primarily defined as the ‘psychological link between an employee and his or her organization that makes it less likely that the employee will voluntarily leave the organization† (Allen Meyer 1996, p. 252). There is enough research advanced to analyze the relationship of organizational commitment on various variables such as work absenteeism or turnover to provide a baseline for a comprehensive analysis on this topic. One of the contemporary definitions of organizational commitment in the scientific definitio n is the three-model theory advanced by Meyer and Allen (1991), which will be comprehensively borrowed for the purposes of this study. The model advances the fact that both affective and continuous process of employee development represents the different states in the psychological makeup that has an impact in the way new employees will improve their commitment in the organization (Whitener 2001).Advertising Looking for dissertation on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Essentially, Meyer and Allen (1991) attest that â€Å"Employees with a strong affective commitment continue employment with the organization because they want to do so. Employees whose primary link the organization is based on continuance commitment remain because they need to do so† (p. 67). Implicitly, the research and commitment managers make towards the discussions and research on employee development should be undertaken in the context of an affirmative commitment. It is, however, essential to note that many models have been developed to analyze the relationship between commitment and their appropriate measures. However, most importantly, it is crucial to note that affirmative commitment is the most essential form of commitment managers would want but of equal importance is the fact that managers would strive to instill it as they develop new engineers. Perceived Investments in Employee Development The most prominent factor to the increasing need for employee development arose from the realization by many organizations that companies were greatly reliant on their human resource. The perceived investment in employee development represents and increasing show of commitment on the part of employers with a ripple effect on the motivational level and employee commitment on the part of the employees (Ichniowski 1997). Research studies have identified that throughout all types of companies and organizations, (such as non-profit business entities, automobile companies, steel companies and the likes), the investment in employee development has a sure guarantee of increased productivity and improved financial performance in the long run. Experts have further affirmed that half of all improved productivity among companies between the period of 1929 and 1982 were attributed to employee development. Studies done by Michael Porter have also identified that companies which engage in employee development bear the strongest competitive advantages in developed marke ts (Porter 1990). As previously observed, the concept of employee development revolves around the idea of equipping employees with substantial skills and knowledge to undertake new tasks. Generally, this has been identified to prepare employees for new job offerings and adequately enable them to meet the criteria for new job requirements. This initiative falls under the criteria of human resource, which majorly reflects the programs and organized learning experiences set to improve the value of employees and their personal growth. Investments in employee development, therefore, provides organizations with a competitive edge through continuous development that seeks to equip new and existing employees with skills and techniques that’ll help them take up new labor challenges. Perceived investments in employee development is best analyzed on the part of employees but is best reflected through the employer’s increased commitment towards equipping its employees to rise thro ugh the internal or external organizational ranks. Thus, within the context of empowering employees to scale up the career ladder, employees are bound to increase their organizational commitment through devotion of personal effort for personal and professional growth (Wayne 1997). Studies done by some American scholars identify that increased commitment in employee development improves organizational commitment, employee retention, employee empowerment and consequently an achievement of strategic success (Wayne 1997). This, therefore, means that regardless of whether employee development is an informal or formal process, it remains a vital part in determining the productivity of a company or organization. Employee Development and Different Types of Organizational Commitment Research studies have shown that employees often form different notions about their employers, depending on the treatment they get in the organization with regards to the policies and procedures in place (Eisenbe rger 1986). In other words, they develop some human-like attributes like bad, good, inconsiderate and such like variables to describe their employers. Essentially, these studies affirmed the fact that a positive resonance from employers with regard to employee development is likely to increase high-quality exchanges between employers and employees. This way, they create some sense of obligation on the part of employees to reciprocate the effort; which in turn rubs on the organization in beneficial ways; say, through increased productivity (Settoon 1996). A perceived form of employee development, therefore, represents the employee’s perspective towards the manner in which the company is treating them and its commitment towards improving their marketability in both the internal and external work set-ups. Thus, according to the motivational process of social exchange theory and the traditional norm with regard to reciprocity, it is evidently clear that employees who believe they are well taken care of by their employers, positively resonate with positive attitudes and behaviors commensurate with the level of devotion the employer has towards their employability (Gutteridge 1993). It is therefore clear that commitment; whether affective or continuance is directly related to the level of employee development managers devote towards their workers. Both levels of organizational commitment (affective and continuous) all have a significant impact on the way companies or organizations function. The affective component of employee commitment to the organization directly refers to the level of emotional attachment an employee would feel towards an organization while the continual commitment reflects the feelings employees have towards the organization and is primarily affected by the way employees feel attached or detached to the organization due to extraneous factors such as pension programs or the commitment of employers towards ensuring they have their families well taken care of (as opposed to a general assumption that the employers consider their needs). There have been several studies that have tried to establish the relationship between affirmative commitment and employee development. Some studies done on American accountants identified that the level of affirmative commitment directly increased with increased training (Gutteridge 1993). In other international studies, it was established that pre-departure expatriate training positively impacted the expatriate affective environment through the perception that organizations which undertake employee development appeared more committed towards the employability of their workers. This elicited a sharp reciprocal reaction of employee commitment towards the organization (Gutteridge 1993). In other studies done on expatriate training and its apparent effect on organizational commitment, it was concluded that there was a positive relationship between the two variables. It was also established that the perception of the employees towards career-related motivational practices, greatly improved the psychological attachment of the employee to the organization. This was with reference to investments in training and development. It established that the conclusions were an indicative factor to the personified commitment employers shows their employees. In turn, employees showed gratitude through increased levels of loyalty. Other studies identified the fact that continuance commitment to organizations and companies is a manifestation of increased costs related to leaving the organization. Auxiliary studies identified employees who pay a considerable amount of their time towards mastering job skills that cannot be easily duplicated in other organizations essentially increased their organizational and continuous commitment to their current organization (Wallace 1997). Studies done in Saudi Arabia almost confirm the same observations because employees there identified that an incr ease in employee development greatly increased the perception that employees are more secure in their jobs and ultimately increasing job satisfaction, implying that continuous commitment was increased (Bhuian and Shahidulislam 1996). Training Training is the most basic and preferable way most electrical companies would use to develop new engineers. Additionally, it is also a perfect way new engineers can learn the job (Noe 1999). The management of employee skills is an unavoidable practice in today’s business environment and employee development is likely to be spurred as management perfects the practice. It is important to note that employee development is multifaceted and also extends beyond the skills gained by an individual or even the improvement in the productivity of the employee (Benson 2002). There are various models that have been developed to evaluate the role training has on various organizations. The first example is the human development theory, which has been m ajorly advanced by economists, implying that training as a mechanism of employee development is a form of investment (Smith and Hayton 1999). The human capital theory has also advanced the fact that training is essentially a method to improve the productivity of the organization. However, this theory identifies the fact that training should be advanced on two fronts; on specific and general fronts (Smith and Hayton 1999). However, in the late 19th century, the neo capitalistic theory advanced the fact that training and employee development was essentially meant to improve the flexibility and adaptability of employees as well as improve their affiliation to innovative practices. The second example relates to the human resource theory, which advances the fact that training and employee development are steered towards improving the level of commitment employees have towards the organization (Smith and Hayton 1999). This theory was initially advanced by the Harvard business school in th e 80s. Training in this theory is advanced as one of the primary tools of managing various human resource functions which if applied together with other principles, effectively induce the four core facets of human resource, which are commitment, competence, congruence and cost-effectiveness (Smith and Hayton 1999). The third example was developed in the United States of America (USA) and Britain. It advanced the fact that with regard to training and high-performance organizations, skill trajectory of organizations is always polarized (Smith and Hayton 1999). This theory identifies that this is the main reason why many organizations become highly skilled while others lag behind in the same respect. This implies that human resource departments have to impose a number of bundles with regard to polices and procedures for organizations to achieve improved performance. Training and employee development are obviously cited as common variables in the bundle. The most common method used in t raining is a controlled management criterion where organizations can elicit an unwritten reciprocal boost in organizational commitment, including other important aspects to employee attributes like performance, attitude, behavior and the likes. Nonetheless, one of the most important reciprocal boost in employee development is Job satisfaction. Employment Development and Job Satisfaction The level to which employees strive to support their workers have a direct impact on the way employees perceive their job and the way they balance work and family responsibilities. Positive perceptions by employees that their employers are helping them tackle their individual problems, therefore, have a significant impact on work satisfaction. This kind of support needs to be witnessed at all levels of management and throughout the organization because it would be fruitless, for instance, to support employees through policies and procedures while the organizational culture does not support such kind of structure. It is, therefore important to note that job satisfaction as a measure of organizational commitment should be evaluated from job outcomes instead of the objective characteristics of the organization. With regards to the electrical company seeking to engage its new engineers in employee development, the level of organizational commitment can, therefore, be evaluated from the level of job satisfaction employees will exhibit. That said, some scholars have pointed out that employee development, unless multifaceted and effective, cannot improve organizational commitment in isolation. This is true because if management engages in employee development from one perspective only, some of its new employees may be disgruntled on another front and probably never exhibit the high level of organizational commitment management would expect of them. However, job satisfaction is a possible factor in organizational commitment that is directly attributed to employment development if it is motivated from all fronts. When an electrical company engages in the development of new engineers, it indirectly affects the way employees perceive different aspects of the job. Most likely, employee development affects this relationship positively, but job satisfaction can be affected either negatively or positively. For several reasons, job satisfaction can be improved in a number of ways. In the first place, new engineers may perceive the organization as a custodian of their future career growth. Secondly, the new engineers will not fail to see the role of employee development in equipping them with new skills (which they essentially never had in the first place). Skills acquired by the new engineers will also be beneficial to them in the general job market (Feldman 1996). It is obviously clear that if the company makes the new engineers feel they are increasing their employability, they are bound to experience higher levels of job satisfaction. In addition, the new engineers wi ll have a better perception of the company and thereby increase the overall positive feeling towards the employer, consequently improving job satisfaction. Studies have been done to affirm the fact that employees experience an increase in job satisfaction if the company they are working for invests enough in them. These conclusions were derived from a case study citing two multinational organizations (Scarpello Campbell 1983). Other studies have affirmed the fact that employee development in form of training improves the overall level of job satisfaction in the long run (Naumann 1993). Job satisfaction, therefore, comes from the fact that employees feel satisfied with their work if they are under the impression that their employees care about their well-being. Based on these empirical studies, it is correct to conclude that there is a positive relationship between the employee development and job satisfaction. Intent to Leave Employee turnover is a huge determinant of organizationa l costs in any organization. Turnover is however affected by many factors, but a key factor is the level of organizational commitment employees have towards the organization and the level of employee development to determine that. The costs of employee turnover are diverse and may range from poor employee morale (for remaining employees), opportunity costs, selections and training of new employees, among others. These costs are often heavily felt when an organization loses its best employees and tries to replace them accordingly. It is therefore important to establish the relation between employee development and employee turnover. The intent to leave an organization has been identified through continuous research as the last among the cognitive process of having the most immediate causal effect on employee turnover (Bedeian 1991). The rate of turnover is expected to increase as employees have the pressing intent to leave the organization. It is vital to establish the relationship b etween investigating the importance of employee intent to leave and determining an employee’s turnover characteristics. Employee development and training are therefore bound to have a direct impact on company turnover (Colarelli Montei 1996). Predictably, employee development is bound to decrease the intent of employees to leave the organization and also increase employee organizational commitment. This is true because of a number of reasons. Firstly, employees often engage in social talks, which enable them evaluate their circumstances with other companies which either offer better or worse employee terms. In this case, scenario where the company is investing in employee development, the new engineers are likely to feel appreciated by the organization because employee development will increase the value of the company in their eyes, consequently increasing the likelihood of the new engineers to be attached to the organization. Secondly, low intent to leave the organization or increased organizational commitment has been identified as a strategy by employees to thank the organization for caring for their needs. Such efforts made by the organization may include the development or updating of new skills, such that employees do not grow obsolete in the labor market. Researchers such as Kalleberg and Rognes (2000) have attested to this fact and note that employee development has a negative relation with employee turnover. Other studies undertaken in America have also observed that turnover has a negative correlation with training. The new engineers undergoing different forms of employee development are, therefore likely to experience a high level of success, satisfaction, and an increased sense of commitment to the organization that is set to tremendously reduce their intent to leave. This conclusion has been backed up by a number of studies confirming that job satisfaction and affective commitment have a directly inverse correlation with employee turnover , regardless of whether it was unintended or intended. These findings have also been resonated in researches done on employees in Singapore, which arrived at the same conclusions. In essence, when employees invest in employee development, employees are bound to have high levels of confidence and satisfaction which consequently makes them develop a high sense of loyalty and productivity in the organization. Thus, it is correct to note that with all factors constant, when employees are satisfied with their jobs, they are less likely to leave the organization because they will eventually develop an emotional attachment to it. Affective commitment describes the employee’s intention not to leave the organization and continuous commitment describes the intention employees have to stay with the organization for long. This equilibrium is often destabilized when employees feel the cost of leaving is the same as that of staying or when the cost of staying in the organization is higher than the costs of termination (Suliman and Iles 2000). However, if the company engages in employee development, there is minimal chance the equilibrium will be destabilized. An investment in employee development is therefore potentially a strategy to increase the perceived costs of leaving the organization while reducing the cost of staying. In addition, the company is likely to boost its chances of retaining its employees for long. This observation is true despite the eminent danger of employees leaving the organization to be employed in other companies, out of improved skills. This is especially true because even if the employees leave their initial places of work for another job elsewhere, they run the risk of experiencing obsolescence from another organization, which may not necessarily have a positive impact on their careers (Ghoshal 1999). This, therefore, reduces their intent to leave. Findings It is clear from the above analysis depicting a positive correlation between emplo yee development and organizational commitment that the electrical company will experience a positive impact on organizational commitment because employee development has been noted to have a positive impact on affective and continual development (Meyer 2000). These factors are derived from the fact that employee development and the perceived benefits will improve employee motivation. The study has analyzed the works of various authors who have also analyzed several variables to conceptualize the construct of employee development. For purposes of future studies, these independent or dependent variables need to be analyzed with regard to how they affect each other. The affective attribute to organizational commitment is directly affected by access to employee development programs while the effect of job satisfaction acts in moderation. The awareness of rules and procedures, employee motivational levels and the quality of management are identified as the basic factors between organizat ional commitment and employee development (Ahmad Bakar 2003). Conclusion Conclusions derived from this study have serious implications on the electrical company. Increased investment in employees is bound to improve the level of morale among the new engineers and increase the organizational commitment by urging them to stay on. Implicitly, this means that the organization needs to give more attention to investment and planning of company activities to increase organizational commitment and also increase the level of job satisfaction among new engineers. It is evidently clear that the relationship between employee development and organizational commitment is positive because with increased employee development, there is a subsequent increase in organizational commitment. This study also establishes that the biggest influential factor in organizational commitment is the perceived access to employee development. Accordingly, the perceived benefits of employee development, organization al environment to employee development, employer support to employee development and the overall social support of employees have been identified to be the biggest determinants of organizational commitment. It is therefore a challenge to the electrical company to improve these variables so that employee commitment can be further enhanced. However, empirical studies done on this relationship still needs to be further explored because the relationship is rather premature. These findings confirm previous research findings advancing the fact that human resource functions such as training and employee development have the greatest impact on affective commitment, especially when it is assumed that employees are primarily affected by the fact that employers take care of their employment needs. The availability of employee development programs will, therefore, boost affective and continuous commitment in the long run. The theory behind these findings is that when employees perceive the empl oyee development program as one that takes care of their needs, they are likely to reciprocate the same level of devotion through affective and continuous commitment. If the company’s main aim is to attain a competitive advantage over its competitors, then employee development is the way to go. It is not enough that this investment improves employee skills through the provision of benefits such as the acquisition of skills or career progression because they are also bound to improve company productivity. In fact, employee development creates a form of dynamic relationship, consequently beneficial to the organization because employees become more motivated to work due to high levels of job satisfaction and increased commitment towards the organization. Finally, it is important to note that many functions relating to employability are quickly gaining ground with respect to the changing working landscape. In light of an uncertain business environment characterized by mergers, la yoffs and downsizing, the importance of employee commitment cannot be overemphasized. However, none of the research cited in this study is conclusive enough to depict a straightforward relationship between employee development and organizational commitment, though indicative findings are encouraging and advance the fact that organizational commitment is likely boosted through employee development. References Ahmad, K. Bakar, R., (2003) The Association between Training And Organizational Commitment among White-Collar Workers in Malaysia.  International Journal of Training and development, 7, p. 3. Allen, N. J., Meyer, J. P., (1996) Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment: An Examination of Construct Validity. Journal of  Vocational Behavior, 49, pp. 252-276. Arthur, J. B., (1994) Effects of Human Resource System on Manufacturing Performance and Turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 37, pp. 670–87. Bedeian, A., (1991) Career Commitment and Expected Utility of Present Job as Predictors of Turnover Intentions and Turnover Behavior. Journal of  Vocational Behavior, 39, pp. 331–43. Benson, G. S., (2002) Beyond Skill Development: The Effects of Training And  Development on the Attitudes and Retention of Employees. California: University of Southern California. Bhuian, S. N. Shahidulislam, M., (1996) Continuance Commitment and Extrinsic Job Satisfaction among a Novel Multicultural Expatriate Workforce. The Mid-Atlantic Journal of Business, 32, pp. 1–9. Colarelli, S. M. Montei, M.S., (1996) Some Contextual Influences on Training Utilization. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 32, pp. 306–23. Eisenberger, R., (1986) Perceived Organizational Support. Journal of Applied  Psychology, 71, pp. 500–7. Feldman, D. C., (1996) Managing Careers in Downsizing Firms. Human Resource  Management, 35 (2), pp. 145–61. Ferris, G. R., (1999) Human Resources Management: Some New Directions. Journal of  Management, 25, pp. 385–415. Ghoshal, S., (1999) A New Manifesto for Management. Sloan Management Review, 40, pp. 9–20. Gutteridge, T. G., (1993) When Careers Flower, Organizations Flourish. Training and Development Journal, 47, pp. 24–9. Ichniowski, C., (1997) The Effects of Human Resource Management Practices on Productivity. American Economic Review, 87, pp. 291–313. Kalleberg, A. L. Rognes, J., (2000) Employment Relations in Norway: Some Dimensions and Correlates. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, pp. 315–35. Meyer, J. P. Allen, N. J., (1991). A Three-Component Conceptualization of Organizational Commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1, pp. 61-89. Meyer, J., (2000) HRM Practices and Organizational Commitment: Test of a Mediation Model. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 17 (4), pp. 319-31. Naumann, E., (1993) Antecedents and Consequences of Satisfaction and Commitment among Expatriate Managers. Group and Organization Management, 18, pp. 153–87. Noe, R. A. Ford, J. K., (1992) Emerging Issues and New Directions for Training  Research: Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Noe, R., (1999) Employee Training and Development. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Nordhaug, O., (1989) Reward Functions of Personnel Training. Human Relations, 42 (5), pp. 373-88. Porter, M., (1990) The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York: The Free Press. Scarpello, V. Campbell, J. P., (1983) Job Satisfaction and the Fit between Individual Needs and Organizational Reward. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 56, pp. 315–29. Schuler, R. S. Macmillan, I. C., (1984) Gaining Competitive Advantage through Human Resource Practices. Human Resource Management, 23 (3), pp. 241-255. Settoon, R.P., (1996) Social Exchange in Organizations: Perceived Organizational Support, Leader–Member Exchange, and Employee Reciprocity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(3), pp. 219–27. Smith, A . Hayton, G., (1999) What Drives Enterprise Training? Evidence From Australia. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10 (2), pp. 251-272. Suliman, A. Iles, P., (2000) Is Continuance Commitment Beneficial to Organizations? Commitment–Performance Relationship: A New Look. Journal of Managerial  Psychology, 15 (5), pp. 407–26. Tannenbaum, S. L., (1991) Meeting Trainees’ Expectations: The Influence of Training Fulfilment in the Development of Commitment, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, pp. 759-769. Wallace, J. E., (1997) Becker’s Side-Bet Theory of Commitment Revisited: It Is Time for a Moratorium or a Resurrection? Human Relations, 50, pp. 727–49. Wayne, S.J., (1997) Perceived Organizational Support and Leader- Member Exchange: A Social Exchange Perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 40, pp. 82–111. Whitener, E. M., (2001) Do â€Å"High Commitment† Human Resource Practices Affe ct Employee Commitment? A Cross-Level Analysis Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling. Journal of Management, 27, pp. 515–35. This dissertation on Developing New Engineers and Their Effect on Organizational Commitment was written and submitted by user BartRozum to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Roskill and Howard Davies Airport Commissions and the Third London Airport The WritePass Journal

Roskill and Howard Davies Airport Commissions and the Third London Airport Introduction Roskill and Howard Davies Airport Commissions and the Third London Airport ). Capacity expansion pursuits have been long drawn over half a century involving two airport commissions and political intrigues (FT, 2014). The Third London Airport commission popularly known as the ‘Roskill Commission’ anticipated growth in air transport and speculated that by the end of the century London might have to accommodate 100 million passengers (Abelson and Flowerdew, 1972). It was an appropriate estimate as the actual number was 115 million (CAPA, 2013). This ceiling has been surpassed and London airports are operating under strenuous volumes. The pursuit of an alternative airport, additional runways to expand capacity, among other options continue to feature in public discourse almost half a century later with myriad arguments and counterarguments (FT, 2014; The Independent, 2014). This report explores the works of the airports commissions (Roskill and Howard Davies commissions), as well as the consideration of the controversial Boris Island alternative. It focuses on the demand and supply of airports among other considerations significant for such ventures as the development of new airports or aviation facilities. History of commissions and development of arguments A 1964 interdepartmental committee on the Third London Airport forecast that the capacity of Heathrow and Gatwick airports combined, even with the addition of a second runway at Gatwick, would be insufficient for Londons air traffic by 1972 (Mishan, 1970). After the consideration of options, the commission on the Third London Airport (Roskill Commission) was set up in 1968. With their evaluation of the timing of need, expansion capacity requirement, and after a careful study of a total of 80 proposed project sites, the commission finally chose four sites, among them a new airport at Cublington (Abelson and Flowerdew, 1972). It was the first time that a full range of environmental and economic arguments were brought to bear on a major investment decision, providing substantial and significant systemic evidence on which to base decisions (HC, 1971). Its excellence in approach and output was however to not much good as government, with a variant perception and opinion immediately rejected its findings choosing instead a scheme to build an airport at Foulness, in the Thames Estuary (Mishan, 1970). Interestingly, this option had been considered and had been decisively rejected by the Roskill Commission on the basis of cost, distance and convenience to prospective passengers (FT, 2014). Neither of the two propositions (Cublington and Foulness) was built and a subsequent change in government and complexion led to the devise of a different scheme a limited expansion of an existing airport at Stansted which was accomplished a decade after proposition. This option had also been considered by the Roskill Commission and never made its shortlist of key options (Helsey and Codd, 2012). It was a predictable failure and is still challenged by the lack of success in supporting long-haul operations by airlines, only benefitting from low-cost carriers (principally Ryan air) drawn by attractive landing charges which offset consequent inconvenience to their passengers (AOA, 2013). A proposal which has re-emerged and gained prominence is the new airport at the Thames Estuary. The ‘Boris Island’ alternative Dubbed Boris Island as a consequence of its support by London Mayor Boris Johnson, the London Britannia Airport (a name adopted for the latest iteration of the idea in 2013) is a proposed airport to be built on an artificial island in the River Thames estuary to serve London. Plans for this airport go several years back but the idea was revived by the Mayor in 2008 (CAPA, 2013; Mayor of London, 2013). Proponents of the project cite the significant advantage it portends in the avoidance of flights over densely populated areas with consideration of noise pollution and attendant safety challenges. However, its critics who include some local councils, nature conservation charity RSPB, as well as current London airports, oppose the scheme, suggesting that it is impractical and expensive (AC, 2013b). It is still under consideration of the Howard Davies Airports Commission, which estimates the entire undertaking including feeder roads and rail to cost  £112 billion, about five times the presently shortlisted short-term options (AC, 2013c). The overall balance of economic impacts of the project would be uncertain given the requirement for the closure of Heathrow and by extension London city for airspace reasons (CAPA, 2013). Renewed pursuit Howard Davies Airports Commission In spite of the myriad arguments and criticisms of the various alternatives, not much has changed and the Howard Davies Airports Commission set up in 2012 still wades in the long running controversy (CAPA, 2013; AOA, 2013). There has evidently been little learnt in the several decades of bad policy making given the hedging, stonewalling, and political posturing that still characterizes the endeavour, a readiness to oppose policies espoused by those of different complexions or the persistent complication of issues when there is requirement for bold action. This characterizes policy today as it did half a century earlier with elaborate models being grossly misused and deliberately disregarded. Minor challenges and disadvantages are greatly amplified overshadowing potentially more substantial benefits (FT, 2014). The Airports Commission was set up to examine the need for additional UK airport capacity and to recommend to government how this can be met in the short, medium and long term. The commission is tasked with creating economic, sustainable and socially responsible growth through competitive airlines and airports. (AC, 2013a). The findings of the Howard Davies Airports Commission contained in their interim report released in December 2013 (preceding a final report expected in 2015) are mainly focused on the continued growth of air travel, mainly in the South East of England. The Commission considers that the region needs an extra runway by 2030, and another possibly by 2050. On the shortlist for the expansion of airport capacity are three options comprising a third runway at Heathrow 3,500m long; lengthening of the existing northern runway to at least 6,000m enabling it to be used for both landing and take-off; as well as a new 3,000m runway at Gatwick (CAPA, 2013; AOA, 2013). Not included is the brand new hub airport in the Thames Estuary, which is side-lined citing uncertainties and challenges surrounding the proposal at this stage (AC, 2013d). However, the Commission promises an evaluation of its feasibility and a decision on its viability later in 2004 (The Independent, 2014). The Stansted and Birmingham options, however, failed to make the shortlist, although the decision remains open for their qualification in the long term (CAPA, 2013). In the Commission’s view, the capacity challenge is yet to become critical although there is potential if no action is taken soon. However, capacity challenges and the jostling and vying for a slice of anticipated extra capacity by airports signals need (AC, 2013d). Arguments on the expansion of airport capacity The Howard Davies Commission acknowledge the ‘over-optimism’ in recent forecasts of growth in demand for the aviation sector, but consider the level of growing demand as prominent requiring focus on the earliest practicable relief (AC, 2013c). This is in response to contentions by opponents that the current capacity is adequate basing their primary argument on earlier inaccurate demand forecasts. These opponents posit operational changes including quieter and bigger planes could serve to accommodate more passengers negating the need for ambitious and expensive ventures. Some also argue that constraining growth in the aviation industry would be the best option for emissions reduction and that government should utilise available capacity, pushing traffic from London’s crowded airports to others around the country, (AC, 2013b; c; d; AOA, 2013 DOT, 2013). The Commission accepts the changes in aviation practice and aircraft design could deliver modest improvements in capacity but argue that none of these submissions suggested significant transformational gains (AC, 2013c). It also stresses that deliberations were alive to the issue of climate change and were focused on the delivery of the best solution for the UK, which entails the achievement of carbon targets and delivery of required connections for the economy and society(AC, 2013c; d). The Commission notes that doing nothing to address capacity constraints could have unintended economic and environmental consequences with the possibility of some flights and emissions being displaced to other countries (AC, 2013d; CAPA, 2013; Mayor of London, 2013). Reliance on runways currently in operation would likely produce a clearly less ideal solution for passengers, global and regional connectivity, and would be sub-optimal in the endeavour to minimize the overall carbon impact of aviation (AC, 2013a; AOA, 2013). To achieve statutory mechanisms aimed at operational efficiency and emission reduction are critical. Conservationists, such as the Friends of Earth, decry growth arguing that the building of more airports and runways will have a major impact on local communities and the environment (Mayor of London, 2013; AC, 2013b). The argument for sustainable growth is welcomed by industry players in light of calls for constraint (AOA, 2013; The Independent, 2014). Through time, the argument has significantly centred on the timing of need for expansion of capacity with the uncertainty over growth and demand estimates. The drive for more intensive use of existing capacity is most appropriate in the short-term given that operational and aircraft design improvements have enabled the handling of more volumes than anticipated. Though limited, there is still capacity for improvement benefitting environmental conformity and overall efficiency. Several tactical improvements are proposed by the Davies commission to enable full and efficient use of available resource and capacity (DOT, 2013; AC, 2013d). The Davies Commission proposes the encouragement of greater adherence to schedules by airlines through stricter enforcement of aircraft arrival time. This would enhance efficient sequencing of arrivals ending the practice of ‘stacking’ especially at Heathrow (Europe’s busiest airport), which is expensive in fuel costs and time and has adverse environmental impact. They also propose ‘smoothing’ of timetables and the tackling of surges in traffic and bottlenecks, such as restrictions of arrivals before 6am and the designation procedures of runways which impede efficiency (AC, 2013d). Also considered are ‘mixed-mode’ operations which entail simultaneous use of runways for take-offs and landings. Through this mode, Heathrow expects to gain 15% in airport capacity without extra building (AOA, 2013). The Airports Commission rules out proposed mixed-mode operations suggesting its use when arrival delays arise and eventually to allow envisaged gradual traffic build up and increase in operations towards the opening of additional runways rather than a flood-gate of activity. In their consideration of noise pollution and impact on residents, the Commission recommends ending of simultaneous landings at both runways with an exception of times of disruption (AC, 2013d). Presently, Heathrow designates different runways for landings and departure which are switched daily at 3 pm to allow for respite for communities near the airport (AOA, 2013; FT, 2014). The Howard Davies Commission suggests that there might not be need for one huge hub airport as growth in recent years has come from low-cost carriers (AC, 2013a). This view makes the case for expansion of Gatwick Airport. In anticipation of confirmation of expansion priorities and solutions, airport bosses are at loggerheads with Gatwick bosses suggesting that it would not make business sense for their second runway if Heathrow is also given a green light for simultaneous expansion (AOA, 2013). This is in consideration of an extension of time to achieve return on investment from the expected 15-20 years to 30-40 years. Gatwick’s case is compelling given that it is cheaper, quicker, has significantly lower environmental impact and is the most deliverable solution in the short term (CAPA, 2013). Heathrow rejects this argument insisting there is a clear business case for a third runway regardless of development at Gatwick. With the airport operating at 98% of its capacity, they highlight potential for parallel growth delivering choice for passengers (AOA, 2013). Mayor Johnson is, however, opposed to Heathrow’s expansion citing the misery inflicted on a million people or more living in west London. He notes that there has been significantly more concern for the needs of passengers superseding the concerns of those on the ground. Johnson proposes focus on the new hub airport (Boris Island) to relieve impact on residents as well as to enhance UK’s competitiveness (Mayor of London, 2013). Supporters of Heathrow’s expansion say it will be quicker and will help to maintain the UK as an international aviation hub increasing global connections. Paris, Amsterdam and Frankfurt are closely competing for this business (DOT, 2013). Conclusion The examination of need for additional airport capacity and recommendation of solutions for the short, medium and long term, has taken the UK half a century and two commissions and still there is no confirmed venture despite the raft of proposals. The earlier Roskill Commission reached conclusions on four promising sites-including a new ‘Boris Island’ airport, which are still under consideration in the later commission the Howard Davies Airports Commission. Considering several arguments with regard to their mandate, the latter commission has proposed additional runways one at Gatwick and possibly two at Heathrow despite potential adverse effects to London residents. They are still to deliver a verdict on the new Thames Estuary project, promising a decision later in 2014 after evaluation. References Abelson, P. and A., Flowerdew, 1972. Roskills successful recommendation. In: Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Vol. 135. No. 4, pp.467 Airports Committee, 2013a. Emerging thinking: Aviation Capacity in the UK. 7th October. Viewed from: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/aviation-capacity-in-the-uk-emerging-thinking Airports Commission, 2013b. Stakeholder responses to Airports Commission discussion papers. 25th October. Viewed from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/stakeholder-responses-to-airports-commission-discussion-papers Airports Commission, 2013c. Airports Commission discussion papers. 29th July. Viewed from: https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/airports-commission-discussion-papers2 Airports Commission, 2013d. Short and medium term options: proposals for making the best use of existing airport capacity. 7th August. Viewed from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/short-and-medium-term-options-proposals-for-making-the-best-use-of-existing-airport-capacity CAPA, 2013. The Davies Commission’s Interim Report on UK airports: the big loser remains UK competitiveness. Centre for Aviation. Department of Transport, 2003. The Future of Air Transport White Paper and the Civil Aviation Bill. [online] viewed on 14/1/2014 from: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/whitepapers Financial Times, 2014. Londons new airport held to ransom by folly. December, 2013 Helsey, M., and F., Codd, 2012. Aviation: proposals for an airport in the Thames estuary, 1945-2012. House of Commons Library. Viewed from: http://cambridgemba.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/sn4920-1946-2012-review.pdf House of Commons Hansard, 1971. Thhird London Airport (Roskill Commission Report). 4th March. Vol. 812. cc1912-2078. HC Mayor of London, 2013. Why London needs a new hub airport. Transport for London. Viewed from: tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/26576.aspx Mishan, E., 1970. What is wrong with Roskill? London: London School of Economics Airports Operators Association, 2013. The Airport Operator, Autumn 2013. The Independent, 2014. Sir Howard Davies Airports Commission: Air travel could be transformed within a few years – with no more stacking. 17th December, 2013

Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Case Study - Essay Example hematical scores of students, whereas the performance related pay has been an opportunity for the proponents of market-based governance seek to introduce private-sector management techniques into the public sector to lead to better out-puts, greater cost-efficiency, and a customer service ethos (Susan, 2006). The characteristics of the New Public Management involve the performance related pay which is considered to be interpretation of the public policy solution, with its focus on outputs, competition and in-centivisation (Lawrence, 2007). The performance related pay has materialized due to the implementation of the New Public Management, which has provided the public and the private sector with any opportunity to experience the competitive forces of the market, the introduction with the private sector management practices has the ostensible aim of increasing efficiency, creating an output focused culture and discouraging rent-seeking (Susan, 2006). The performance based pay practice is widely popular in the private sector, and has been a medium for the improvement of the results through the creation of the incentives for the employees (Terri, 2000). The concept of performance related pay is common in Australia, and the majority of the teachers and professionals associated with the academia have been paid pupils’ results as assessed in examinations, tests, and visits by invigilator (Susan, 2006). The implementation of the system was aimed at the improvement of the performance of the teachers, and to enhance the quality of education. It was believed that through provisions in the pay package of the teachers, the educational standard can be improved. The amendments in the performance based package were lastly proposed by the Federal Ministry Education, Science and Training, as per which the performance related pay is expected to be measured by principals, parents and students alike (Lawrence, 2007). In Australia, the teachers are offered annual increment, with

Education and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Education and Society - Essay Example From the discussion it is clear that  functionalism states that every society’s aspect is interdependent and contributes to the functioning of the whole society. The government provides education for the state’s children whereas the same citizens of the state pay tax to keep the government running. According to Emile Dhurkenim, the society is held together by cohesion or social consensus whereby the citizens concur together and work to accomplish the best for the society at- large. This essay will discuss the functionalist perspective of the central government control of curriculum content is schools.According to the report findings  the central government should provide education for the children of the family, which then the citizens pay taxes to sustain the government’s operations. This ensures the family is dependent on the school in assisting the growing up of the children, ensuring good jobs for the children to grow and sustain their own families. Centr al government control of curriculum content in schools means that the government is fully in-charge of developing, facilitating and ensuring that the curriculum it comes up with is taught in the schools. The government comes up with various education policies regarding the curriculum to be taught and enforces the same. Through this direct involvement, the government ensures that it consults all the major stakeholders in the education industry in order to develop the curriculum.   The policy is enforced using various strategies, ensuring the full implementation and evaluation of the curriculum, to check its functionality. All state machinery is put to task ensuring that the curriculum works in accordance to set processes and procedures by the government. This paper discusses the central government functionalist perspective on curriculum content in schools (Bundy and Mathews, 1998, p. 29). According to Durkheim research, he came up with three irrefutable facts to social sciences. Am ong them were the social facts that were underlying the institutions such as the family, state and education. Since all stakeholders were part of the development in the central government controlled curriculum, implementing the curriculum does not become a major challenge. The government values education and it is for the paramount reason that the central government comes up with various funding mechanisms for the curriculum since it understands that a learned population for the country is a key pillar for economical significance and empowerment. The country’s constitution entrenches education as a fundamental right for the people, making it obligatory for the government to, fully control the curriculum to be taught (Turner, 2012, p. 17). Central governments are adequately aware that education is a paramount fundamental right for its citizens and therefore it has the authority and mandate to provide education. The central government thus develops the curriculum. Here the cent ral government controls the educational institutions indirectly. Standardization is the key element of education since the people of that particular country will be taught the same things regardless of personal status. The central government comes with a standard-based curriculum that ensures changes regarding how teachers teach and the way schools are managed. The central gove

Analysis Of Short Story Daisy Miller

Analysis Of Short Story Daisy Miller It is very interesting to analyze this short novel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Daisy Miller written by Henry James. This novel has a lot of fascinating things ready to be discovered and understood, and behind the story of the novel a lot of symbols are hidding ready to be dyscovered and understood. This symbols are revealing a new perspective upon the story, a new way of understanding the narrative. Another interesting thing noticed in Daisy Miller is the permanent contrast that is being created, like a symbolic opposition between summer and winter, hot and cold, youth and old age, flower (daisy) and winter, life and death. Daisy Miller herself is an image situated in the middle of contrastive opinions, she plays the part of the innocent girl, being permanently judged by society, judged by Winterbourne, although deep inside she is innocent and pure; so, an incongruity between reality and appearance is being created. Another interesting aspect of this novel is the setting. From the beginning of the book, the author makes a great introduction by situating the action, placing the reader slowly in the situation. Firstly the location is being named: At the little town in Veney, in Switzerland, so, the place is set. The narrative technique used by the author in the first paragraphs is a very interesting one. The image is firstly enlarged and then slowly with every word, the background converges, persisting on the description of the hotel and the tourist, ending by setting the time: a beautiful summer morning and then concentrating on one of the novels character: Winterbourne. So, a part of the action takes part in Switzerland and another segment of the novels action takes place in Rome. These two settings are notarbitrary chosen, both have a deep significance. These places are symbols of other literary works or genres. Firstly both are tight related with Romantic poets whom Winterbourne deeply regard. Mary Shelleys Frankenstein takes place largely in Switzerland, and Mary Shelley wrote it during the time that she, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Byron sojourned at Lake Geneva. Mary Shelley and John Keats are both buried in the Protestant Cemetery, which becomes Daisys own final resting place  [4]  . Chapter three starts with the sentence: Winterbourne, who had returned to Geneva the day after his excursion to Chillon, went to Rome towards the end of January  [5]  . This sentence points exactly the three main locations where the action of the novel takes place and where the characters of the novel express their relationships and their attitudes. Not randomly chosen, the capital of Italy, Rome might be seen as a mute character, a silent witness of the action or as a background that links contrastive matters. Rome is the city of Renaissance, the city where art bloomed, a city where the artist might easily find the place to express. Here, Daisy behaves in a very libertine way; she doesnt care about any social or ethical values, maintaining her innocence and her integrity without anybody, especially Winterbourne to notice that. Daisy, like an artist, is only judged and condemned and only after her dead she is being understood and appreciated. In Rome there was a lot of talking about the so called Roman fever; this line has a double significance, although firstly it could be understood as the mothers worry about their daughters, this expression symbolize a disease: malaria, the malady that was haunting the city, and who finally kills Daisy. Another important setting of the novels action is the Coliseum; this is the background where a very important scene takes place. Here Daisy has the final encounter with Winterbourne, here she contacts the fever, malaria and after that she dies. This place is not randomly chose. In ancient times, the Coliseum was a place famous for different fights and contests. But also, the Coliseum is well-known as the place where centuries of Christian martyrdoms took place  [6]  . Considering this background from a symbolic perspective the Coliseum becomes a place where an innocent girl was killed without having any guilt and being pure and sinless just like the Christians in the ancient times. It is typical for Henry James to represent the society of people interested in ideas and refinements of subtle manner. He often was considered as being a cosmopolite because he liked travelling so much and he often moved between America, England and Europe. The conflict between Americans and Europeans can be found as one of the main themes in the background of his novel. This theme has at its basis a modernistic concept specific to the age. The American origin plays a great role in the novel because all the characters that bare this nationality are the greatest characters, that mature and finally achieve a greatness at the end of the novel. The usual image that we find is the one of the American that loses a part of that initial innocence when encountering the figure of the European with life experience. When it comes to James structure of the novel, we can find that almost all of them are structured in the same way. We have a central thing that supremely matters, as James himself said, that all the lines point at. In Daisy Miller , this supreme matter is Winterbourne lust for the discovery of Daisys innocence. As a consequence we have the circular structure of the novel as an approach to the central subject. Henry James offers us situations of a society that he was part of and we can see that in his novels, every incident has its function in providing us more information about a situation or a character. Although we may be tempted to say that he had a sort of realism in his works, the only reality we can find is the description of a society of conflict.

Lack of Variance Among Modern Cars :: Economy

Lack of Variance Among Modern Cars We ask ourselves every time we see heavy traffic, is there no variance anymore amongst car models? In the old days, as a matter of fact only five or ten years ago every single car brand seemed to have it's own personality, today they look more like a cluster of copycats. What went wrong? One reason is that the automotive industry has certain trends it has to follow, just like fashion designers and musical composers. In times of recession and decreasing sales there is less room to take chances and manufacturers are prone to follow the common pattern as a safer bet rather than releasing a controversial product that might or might not sell very well. This makes for different models to conform considerably under the rules and regulations for the design of a car of this decade. Another reason is that many manufacturers actually cooperate and by contracts copy each others models. The Mitsubishi 3000 GT for example is practically the same car as the Dodge Stealth, only the Mitsubishi is made in Japan at the original factory and the Stealth is made in the US at the Dodge factory. Apart from the two emblems respectively, very few details differ the two cars. Honda who have been in need of a sport utility vehicle in order to grab their share of that part of the market, which has grown considerably the last decade have taken almost desperate measures. They have simply bought the rights to re-badge the Isuzu Rodeo as the Honda Passport and marketed it as an all new model. The last and maybe the most logical reason is that all manufacturers are striving towards 'the perfect car'. All cars are supposed to offer a maximum of performance, passenger room and cargo space, and a minimum of fuel consumption and cost to manufacture and maintain. There are only so many ways to technically achieve these goals. Cars tend to get more rounded edges in order to be more aerodynamic. The trunk lid is high in order to offer greater cargo space without imposing on the passengers. The design of the trunk lid is also approaching the 'optimal' shape for easy loading and access. Windows are large and pillars are thin for better view. The lights, both back and front, are homing in on the design for maximum

Groups vs Individuals Essay

‘Individuals will complete a task more efficiently and effectively than a group. And training in group dynamics, whilst interesting, has no practical value as a means of increasing the standard of group performance’ (Mullins, 2007, p296). Essay This essay is going to examine the main differences between the work of individuals and the work of a group. The perception of the author of the essay title basically states that there are more benefits than drawbacks in the individual work when comparing to the group work as well as that a given task can be completed more efficiently and effectively by an individual. The other part of the title discusses that there is no increase in group performance even though training in group is more interesting and appealing. In order to examine these two statements it is essential to consider every effect that might have an impact on the work of both individuals and groups. What often comes to people’s mind when discussing the advantages and disadvantages of working in a group is that the more people you have the more ideas you have and that the more people you have the faster the given task is completed. This essay will reveal that it is not as simple as many of us might think and that there are many complex elements of people’s behaviour that might have both positive and negative effect on the final task result. In what follows, we’ll have a look at these factors and give reasons why should the work of individual be more effective than group work or why not. In this part of the essay we are going to have a look at how various individual differences affect individual behaviour in the workplace. Individuals in the organization explore five topics which are personality, perception, learning and motivation at work. All these five psychological aspects are very closely related to each other and they help us to understand behaviour in general as well as in particular but also to analyze the performance of work and the quality of working life. We have chosen to focus on one of these five topics – Personality. Firstly, it is required to comprehend what actually personality is. Despite of the fact, (Bratton, 2007) that any universal definition of personality has not been accepted yet, we define personality as a relatively resistant way of thinking, feeling and acting which characterizes a person’s response to his or her environment. However, (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004) there are some properties, which restrict our definition of personality, that are both stable and distinctive, depending on different situations and over time. In the case of stability, we are not interested in properties that are occasional and transient. For example, changes in person’s behaviour caused by the consumption of drugs or caused by some kind of illness are not considered as personality characteristics, unless they become permanent. However, there is one serious issue and that is the fact that personalities appear to be flexible. For example, a manager who appears to be very loud and emotionless in the office could be a caring and supportive parent in family life. In the case of distinctiveness, we must know that personality theory is related to properties that are unique to the individual and not to those that all or most other people share. For example, a man may be aggressive towards taxi drivers, friendly with waiters, loud at concerts and terrified of spiders. But the thing is that he may share some of these dispositions with a friend who breeds spiders. We also must know that, (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004) the theory of personality relies on two main propositions. One of them is that behaviour does not change frequently even though is has both stable and distinctive features. The other one is that it must be accepted they only way how to compare the distinctive properties is by comparing them to the properties of others. One of the many theories of personality is Eysenck’s three-factor model of personality. Hans J. Eysenck (1916-1997), a well-known British psychologist born in Berlin, Germany, used factor analysis to originate his theory of personality. His theory declares, (Bratton, 2007) that a normal personality can be understood in terms of three basic factors : introversion ( a personality dimension that characterizes people who are territorial and solitary ) – extroversion ( a personality dimension that characterizes people who are outgoing, sociable and talkative ), stability – instability and self-control – psychoticism. Introversion is the opposite of extroversion, stability is the opposite of instability and self-control is the opposite of psychoticism. Eysenck created a two dimensional model which he believed captured the most important aspects of person’s personality ( see Figure 1. 0 ). [pic] Figure 1. 0 points out the effects of various combinations of the three dimensions and relates them to the four personality types (Bratton, 2007) originated by the Greek physician Galen in the second century AD. The fact that the two basic dimensions intersect at right angles ( in the sense that they are independent ) should be noted. Therefore, when we know what level of extroversion personality has it does not show us how emotionally stable the personality is. The level of person’s stability could be anywhere along the stability dimension. The other thing which the diagram reveals is that various combinations of the two primary basic dimensions make different personalities. For example, as we can see, an extroverted unstable person is touchy, restless and aggressive an extroverted stable person is sociable, outgoing and talkative. Eysenck’s theory puts in our mind that the type of personality might have a vast effect on an individual completing a given task. Therefore, a company should be very careful when hiring new employees. But on the other hand, hiring a suitable type of personality would bring a great effectiveness and efficiency into the company’s performance. In this part of the essay we are going to examine some problems that might occur in the work group. When speaking of groups we must understand what actually a group is. A group could be people waiting at a bus stop for a bus, audience in a theatre, people sheltering in a shop doorway from the rain or members of a football team. However, only one of the mentioned groups can be regarded as a work group and that is the football team. It is very significant to recognize a distinction between mere aggregates of individuals and psychological group. Consequently, we must know what characteristics a group must meet to become one. Firstly, (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004) it is a minimum membership of two people. No ‘official’ size has been accepted, and different authors describe groups that range from two to thirty individuals. However, the more members a group has the more relations within the group there are. This fact might have a huge effect on the group performance whereas the bigger the group is the better level of communication is required and the more complex it is to operate the group effectively and successfully. Secondly, (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004) every single member of the group must be able to communicate with every other member. In case of not meeting this criterion there might be some very serious problems in completing a given task. For example, if there was a group of three members and one member would not communicate with one of the other two members, the efficiency of the group performance would be hardly decreased. Thirdly, (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004) members must have a shared sense of collective identity. Each member must be associated with the other members, not see him or herself as a individual working independently and at the same time all members must believe themselves in order to distinct the group from other groups. Failing to meet this criterion might cause a very negative impact on completing a task. For example, if one group member do not believe in some of the other member it might cause a tension between the members or it might make the disbelieving member work independently and again decrease the efficiency of the group performance. Fourthly, (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004) members must have complementary goals. Each member of a group may have different goals which can be achieved only by membership of and participation in the group. Fifthly, (Buchanan & Huczynski, 2004) a group must have a structure. Every member of the group will have a different role, for example initiator, suggestion-provider, compromiser and etc. These roles tend to become fixed and indicate what members expect from each other. This criterion can be met only by following certain norms or rules. We believe that this is the most fragile part of work groups. Some people believe that rules are made to be broken and tend not to follow them. This can as well as the other criteria have a vast impact on the group performance. This part of the essay is going to be related to the statement that training in group dynamics, whilst interesting, has no practical value as a means of increasing the standard of group performance. First of all, we must gain knowledge of the term group dynamics. Group dynamics (Bratton, 2007) is the study of human behaviour in groups. The nature of groups, group development and the interrelations between individuals and group, other groups and other elements of formal organizations are included in this study. We have four major factors (Bratton, 2007) that influence group dynamics, but be aware that these factors does not attempt to create a theory of group dynamics, nor these factors can be applied to every type of group. These four elements are group context, group structure, group processes and group outcomes. We will have a closer look at the group structure. The group structure has a crucial role in group dynamics. It influences the way members relate and interact with each other and it also enable us to explain individual behaviour within the group. Without any doubt all of us have at least once found ourselves in a group. We know that group members within a group are not equal, do not have the same knowledge, have different perceptions and have different skills and abilities. This is where the differentiation takes place and where social relations are formed. According to Bratton (2007, p. 303) the group structure is the stable pattern of relationships among the differentiated elements in the group. Size of the group along other factors such as roles, status and leadership plays very important role in differentiation of a group. As we have mentioned earlier the more people you have in a group the more relationships there are and the more relationships there are the more likely a conflict might occur. For example, a group of three has three relationships, a group of four has six relationships and a group of seven has however 21 relationships. A big problem that might occur in a group is when a group has numerous members coalitions might intervene which means that some members align themselves against other group members.